Ken Burns Overview
This lesson introduces students to the principles of just war theory, the basis of international agreements such as the Geneva Conventions that regulate the conduct of nations in wartime. The lesson asks students to consider the six principles of jus ad bellum, or what makes a war just, as applied to World War II. Students read Roosevelt’s Joint Address to Congress Leading to a Declaration of War Against Japan (the “day that will live in infamy” speech) in order to assess whether or not Roosevelt spelled out the case for a just war.
Objectives
Students will:
- Examine the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and identify its effect on U.S. history.
- Review elements of just war theory, the basis of international law regarding warfare.
- Analyze a speech and its effect on the American people.
Lesson Procedure: Just War Theory and FDR’s Declaration of War
- When, if ever, is war just? Tell students that in the Western tradition, philosophers and statesmen have grappled with this question for centuries, beginning with the Greeks and Romans. Explain to the class that just war theory, or jus ad bellum, has become the basis for international agreements like the Geneva Conventions and modern humanitarian law. The Geneva Convention of 1864 was the first treaty concerning humanitarian aid in wartime. The Four Geneva Conventions as we know them were finalized after World War II (1949), and in 1977 two protocols were added to them.
- As a class, view the video segments regarding the U.S. entry into World War II after the attack on Pearl Harbor. According to just war theory, was America justified in declaring war on Japan and subsequently on Germany and Italy?
- Tell students that in order to answer this question they are going to consider three sources:
- A summary of just war theory as it applies to declaring war (located below)
- Video excerpts from The War
- President Roosevelt’s declaration of war officially titled the Joint Address to Congress Leading to a Declaration of War Against Japan (1941)
- Distribute the following definition of just war theory or display it on an overhead projector. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Professor Brian Orend states that jus ad bellum sets forth the following six requirements, all of which must be met for a war to be considered just:
- Just cause. To be justified in waging war, a nation must do so in the cause of justice. Just cause is first and foremost the self-defense of a nation that is physically and aggressively attacked by another nation. (For other reasons for waging war, see the complete on-line essay cited below.)
- Right intention. The nation that wages war must do so for the right motives, that is, only to ensure that the just cause is attained by war’s end. There can be no ulterior motives, such as racial or ethnic hatred, or provoking war for a land grab.
- Proper authority and public declaration. The decision to wage war must be made only by the proper authorities of a state, following the process set forth by that nation’s laws. The declaration must be made public to its citizens and to the nation against whom the war is waged. Failing this, the nation lacks the legitimacy to go to war.
- Last Resort. A nation may resort to war only if it has exhausted all diplomatic means of resolving the conflict peacefully. The state must be able to demonstrate that there is no other reasonable or practicable means of right- ing the wrong, short of war.
- Probability of Success. Because of the harm and destruc- tion engendered by warfare, it should only be initiated if it is deemed likely to be successful. (Note that while the probability of success is accepted as a precondition by many just war theorists, it is not included in international law, which seeks to protect the rights of smaller and weaker states.)
- Proportionality. Before deciding to wage war, a state must evaluate the universal good that is likely to result and weigh it against the universal evil (death and destruction) that will be incurred on all sides. In a just war, the benefits of winning the war (securing the just cause) must outweigh its cost in human life.
- Lead a class discussion on the following questions:
- What was the nature of the attack on Pearl Harbor? What evidence is there that it was a surprise attack, with no warning given?
- What was the extent of damage incurred by the United States in terms of loss of life and military capability?
- When and why did the U.S. declare war on Japan?
- Before Pearl Harbor, what had Roosevelt done to aid those countries fighting Germany and Japan?
- What were the goals of Japan? Did it threaten the United States itself, its interests, its democratic traditions?
- Do you think that the United States was justified in declaring war on Japan and if so, on what basis?
- Next distribute President Roosevelt’s declaration of war, officially titled the Joint Address to Congress Leading to a Declaration of War Against Japan (1941), along with the accompanying Declaration of War Worksheet.
- Ask students, as individuals or in small groups, to complete the worksheet.
- When students have completed their Declaration of War worksheets, hold a class discussion in which you pose the following questions about the declaration and World War II:
- Which principle of just war theory is best supported by the declaration of war and why
- Which of the six is least well supported by the declaration and why?
Extension Idea
Ask students to compare the first draft of FDR’s speech to the final version available at the National Archives. Which words did he change, and to what effect? Which of the six just war criteria did he most strengthen by making these changes?
What impact did FDR’s words make on the American public in terms of their support for the war? Although the speech was officially made to Congress, how did FDR make it clear that he is speaking to and for the American people themselves?
Assuming that the declaration of war against Japan meets the criteria posited by just war theory, was it therefore traitorous to refuse to fight in it? On what basis did pacifists refuse to fight in World War II? What was the response of the U.S. government? Of the public at large?
National Standards
National Standards for History, National Center for History in the School at http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/nchs/
Era 8 Standard 3A. The Students the international back- ground of Warld War II. Analyze the reasons for the grow- ing tenstions with Japan in East Asia culminating with the bombing of Pearl Harbor.
Center for Civic Education, National Standards for Civics and Government. http://www.civiced.org/
- What are the foundations of the American political System. A1. The necessity for a written constitution to set forth the organization of government and to grant and distribute its powers, e.g., among different branches of the national government.
National Council for the Social Studies, Curriculum Standards for Social Studies.
Standard VI C Power, Authority & Governance. Give examples of how government does or does not provide for needs and wants of people, establish order and security, and manage conflict. F. identify and describe factors that con- tribute to cooperation and cause disputes within and among groups and nations.
Standard IV Individual Development & Identity g. compare and evaluate the impact of stereotyping, conformity, acts of altruism, and other behaviors on individuals and groups.
Standard VI Power; Authority, & Governance b. explain the purpose of government and analyze how its powers are acquired, used and justified. F. analyze and evaluate conditions, actions, and motivations that contribute to conflict andcooperation within and among nations.
Standard X Civic Ideals and Practices. H, evaluate the degree to which public policies and citizen behaviors reflect or foster the stated ideals of a democratic republican form of government.
Language Arts, Mid-continent Research for Education and Learning (McRel) at http://www.mcrel.org/
Standard 1 The Writing Process
- Uses prewriting strategies
- Drafts and revises; redrafts for readability, style, content and linguistic structures.
- Edits own and others’ writing
- Uses strategies to address different audiences
- Writes expository compositions; synthesizes information from different sources
- Writes fictional, biographical, autobiographical and obser- vational narrative compositions.
- Writes persuasive compositions; develops thesis statement; backs up assertions.
- Writes descriptive compositions; reflects on personal experience.
- Writes in response to literature; analyzes and interprets
Standard 2: Uses Sylistic and rhetorical aspects of writing
- Uses precise and descriptive language
- Develops effective paragraphs in logical sequence; uses supporting detail
- Varies sentences structures
- Uses a variety of transitional devises
- Develops personal styles and voice
From McRel (http://www.mcrel.org/compendium/browse.asp)
Handout: Joint Address to Congress Leading to a Declaration of War Against Japan (1941)
See Page 1 and Page 2 of the original.
Mr. Vice President, and Mr. Speaker, and Members of the Senate and House of Representatives: Yesterday, December 7, 1941—a date which will live in infamy—the United States of America was suddenly and deliberately attacked by naval and air forces of the Empire of Japan.
The United States was at peace with that Nation and, at the solicitation of Japan, was still in conversation with its Government and its Emperor looking toward the maintenance of peace in the Pacific. Indeed, one hour after Japanese air squadrons had commenced bombing in the American Island of Oahu, the Japanese Ambassador to the United States and his colleague delivered to our Secretary of State a formal reply to a recent American message. And while this reply stated that it seemed useless to continue the existing diplomatic negotiations, it contained no threat or hint of war or of armed attack.
It will be recorded that the distance of Hawaii from Japan makes it obvious that the attack was deliberately planned many days or even weeks ago. During the intervening time the Japanese Government has deliberately sought to deceive the United States by false statements and expressions of hope for continued peace.
The attack yesterday on the Hawaiian Islands has caused severe damage to American naval and military forces. I regret to tell you that very many American lives have been lost. In addition American ships have been reported torpedoed on the high seas between San Francisco and Honolulu.
Yesterday the Japanese Government also launched an attack against Malaya. Last night Japanese forces attacked Hong Kong. Last night Japanese forces attacked Guam. Last night Japanese forces attacked the Philippine Islands. Last night the Japanese attacked Wake Island. And this morning the Japanese attacked Midway Island.
Japan has, therefore, undertaken a surprise offensive extending throughout the Pacific area. The facts of yesterday and today speak for themselves. The people of the United States have already formed their opinions and well understand the implications to the very life and safety of our Nation.
As Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy I have directed that all measures be taken for our defense.
But always will our whole Nation remember the character of the onslaught against us.
No matter how long it may take us to overcome this premeditated invasion, the American people in their righteous might will win through to absolute victory. I believe that I interpret the will of the Congress and of the people when I assert that we will not only defend ourselves to the uttermost but will make it very certain that this form of treachery shall never again endanger us. Hostilities exist. There is no blinking at the fact that our people, our territory, and our interests are in grave danger.
With confidence in our armed forces—with the unbounding determination of our people—we will gain the inevitable triumph- so help us God. I ask that the Congress declare that since the unprovoked and dastardly attack by
Japan on Sunday, December 7, 1941, a state of war has existed between the United States and the Japanese Empire.
Transcription courtesy of the Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum.
Handout: Joint Address to Congress Leading to a Declaration of War Against Japan (1941): Background Essay
www.ourdocuments.gov
On December 8, 1941, the day after the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor, President Franklin Roosevelt delivered this “Day of Infamy Speech.” Immediately afterward, Congress declared war, and the United States entered World War II.
On December 7, 1941, the U.S. naval base on the island of Oahu, Hawaii, was subject to an attack that was one of the greatest military surprises in the history of warfare. In less than 2 hours, the U.S. Pacific Fleet was devastated, and more than 3,500 Americans were killed or wounded. The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor catapulted the United States into World War II.
The American people were outraged. Though diplomatic relations between the United States and Japan were deteriorating, they had not yet broken off at the time of the attack. Instantly, the incident united the American people in a massive mobilization for war and strengthened American resolve to guard against any future lapse of military alertness.
Early in the afternoon of December 7, 1941, President Franklin D. Roosevelt and his chief foreign policy aide, Harry Hopkins, were interrupted by a telephone call from Secretary of War Henry Stimson and told that the Japanese had attacked Pearl Harbor.
At about 5 p.m., following meetings with his military advisers, the President calmly and decisively dictated to his secretary, Grace Tully, a request to Congress for a declaration of war. He had composed the speech in his head after deciding on a brief, uncomplicated appeal to the people of the United States rather than a thorough recitation of Japanese treachery, as Secretary of State Cordell Hull had urged.
President Roosevelt then revised the typed draft—marking it up, updating military information, and selecting alternative wordings that strengthened the tone of the speech. He made the most significant change in the critical first line, which originally read, “a date which will live in world history.” Grace Tully then prepared the final reading copy, which Roosevelt subsequently altered in three more places.
On December 8, at 12:30 p.m., Roosevelt addressed a joint session of Congress and, via radio, the nation. The Senate responded with a unanimous vote in support of war; only Montana pacifist Jeanette Rankin dissented in the House. At 4 p.m. that same afternoon, President Roosevelt signed the declaration of war.
Roosevelt misplaced his reading copy immediately following the speech; it remained missing for 43 years. Instead of bringing the reading copy back to the White House for Grace Tully to file, the President evidently left it in the House chamber, where he had given the address. A Senate clerk took charge of it, endorsed it “Dec 8, 1941, Read in joint session,” and filed it. In March 1984 an archivist located the reading copy among the Records of the U.S. Senate, Record Group 46, located in the National Archives building, where it remains today.
Document Citation: “Day of Infamy” Speech by Franklin D. Roosevelt, December 8,
1941; SEN 77A-H1, Records of the United States Senate; Record Group 46; National
Archives.
Handout: Letter from FDR to Churchill, World War II
Handout: Declaration of War Worksheet
‘Review the six principles of ‘Just War Theory ‘as excerpted from ‘‘Brian Orend’s entry on War in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy’‘. Apply the six principles to President Roosevelt’s declaration of war. Answer the following questions to guide your thinking.’
- Just Cause:
- ‘What evidence does FDR offer to convince you that a grievous wrong has been done to the United States? What evidence does he provide to show that the attack on Pearl Harbor was a premeditated surprise attack? Why is that important to making his case?’
- ‘Where are Malaya, Hong Kong, Guam, the Philippine Islands and Wake Island? Which of these were U.S. possessions? When did they become U.S. possessions? What was the status of the Hawaiian Islands at this time? Which if any of these locations had U.S. military bases on them?’
- Right Intention:
- ‘What is the stated intention of the United States in going to war? Can you find evidence that there were ulterior motives at work? (Note that sometimes an ulterior motive, such as a land grab, only becomes apparent at the conclusion of a war.)’
- Proper Authority and Public Declaration:
- ‘Under the U.S. Constitution, who has the authority to declare war? Who is Commander-in-Chief? Which articles define these roles? To whom does FDR address his declaration of war? Is it a public declaration?’
- Last Resort
- ‘According to the declaration, did the United States try to settle the conflict with Japan by all other means? Research Japanese-American relations on the eve of December 7, 1941. Does FDR present a fair picture of the situation?’
- Probability of Success
- ‘Does the declaration convince you that the United States is likely to be victorious? What evidence is presented? Look at maps of the world in 1941 on the companion website to The War (hyperlink). Also read about the industrial capacity of the United States at this time. What difficulties confronted the United States in waging war against Japan, and how likely were we to overcome them?’
- Proportionality
- ‘Does FDR show that the consequences of going to war with Japan are worth the expected outcome in terms of the dam- age the war itself is likely to cause? (Note that at the start of World War II the atomic bomb did not yet exist.)’
FINAL QUESTION: ‘Did President Roosevelt’s declaration of war against the Empire of Japan convince you that America’s entry into World War II was justified according to just war theory?’
